At a conference in Milan, he presented his results. People clustered afterward, fingers pointed at graphs, skepticism and curiosity braided together. He spoke calmly about models and margins, about a simple philosophy: respect what you cannot see. “Batteries,” he said, “tell us their stories if we learn to listen in current and temperature.”

The pack is split into modules, each with its own local slave controller, reporting back to a master controller. This scales easily for large electric vehicles.

Specialized integrated circuits (ICs) that physically measure the voltage of individual cells and sample temperature sensors.